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Voltage Reference
A voltage reference is an electronic device that produces a fixed (constant) voltage irrespective of the loading on the device, power supply variations, temperature changes, and the passage of time. Voltage references are used in power supplies, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog converters, and other measurement and control systems. Voltage references vary widely in performance; a regulator for a computer power supply may only hold its value to within a few per cent of the nominal value, whereas laboratory voltage standards have precisions and stability measured in parts per million. The earliest voltage references or standards were wet-chemical cells such as the Clark cell and Weston cell, which are still used in some laboratory and calibration applications. Laboratory-grade Zener diode secondary solid-state voltage standards used in metrology can be constructed with a drift of about 1 part per million per year. The value of the volt is now defined by the Josephson Effect to get a voltage to an accuracy of 1 parts per billion. The paper titled, "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling", was published by Brian David Josephson in 1962 and earned Josephson the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973. Formerly, mercury batteries were much used as convenient voltage references especially in portable instruments such as photographic light meters; mercury batteries had a very stable discharge voltage over their useful life.
